Chapter 1 - Introducing linguistics

Définition

A linguist

someone who studies foreign languages or can speak them very well / someone who teaches or studies linguistics

Linguistics

scientific studies of a language

Language

system of communication

How do linguists study language ?

through history (roots)
how language works in society
grammar...

What exactly do linguists study ?

human language as a system
diff aspects of a language

Définition

grammar

speaker's knowledge of their language / the description of the structure of a language and the way in which linguistics units such as words and phrases are combined to produce sentences in the language.

A retenir :

Linguistics observe grammar into several levels :

phonetics = study of specific sounds, how they are produced and perceived.
phonology = the study of the patterns of sounds in a language and across languages / the establishment and description of the distinctive sound units of a language by means of distinctive features (high, low, back, round)
morphology = the study of morphemes (the smallest units bearing meaning) and their diff forms (allomorphs), and the way they combine in word formation.
syntax = the way in which words combine to form sentences and the rules which govern the formation of sentences, making some sentences possible and others not possible within a particular language.
semantics = deals with the meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.
pragmatics = the study of the use of language in communication, in particular the relationships betw sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used.

Définition

Dialect

a particular form of a language which is peculiar to a specific region or social group (pronunciation, syntax... can be different)

for social, psychological, historical and political reasons ("a language is a dialect with an army and a navy")

Is the capacity for language innate?

Définition

innateness hypothesis

humans are pre-wired to acquire language (human brain is made to acquire a language but has to be expose to a language)

poverty of the stimulus

child-directed speech is simplified yet children learn to form questions with syntactically embedded material

specialisation for language

certain regions of the brain carry out primarily linguistic functions.

Role of human interaction:

despite innateness arguments, the role of input and human interation cannot be denied.
interaction is key to human dvlmpt - both early and beyond.

Définition

Critical period hypothesis

the claim that there is an optimal period for language acquisition, ending at puberty.

during this critical period, language learning proceeds quickly and easily.

after this period, the acquisition of grammar is difficult and for some ppl, never fully achieved.

Chapter 2 - Prescriptivism vs Descriptivism & Linguistic insecurity

Définition

Prescriptive grammar

Rules of grammar brought about by grammarians’ attempts to legislate what speakers’ grammatical rules should be, rather than what they are.

Prescriptive linguists prescript how we have to use a language

Descriptive grammar

A linguist’s description or model of the mental grammar, including the units, structures, and rules. An explicit statement of what speakers know about their language / A grammar that seeks to describe human linguistic ability and knowledge, not to prescribe one system in preference to another.

Descriptive linguists= describe the use of language

English prescriptive rules rules of "good" grammar, rules that speakers should follow in order to produce "good" sentences

Approaches to language for non-linguists (”regular ppl”):

“language” often means the standard language
language of school, formal writting
often seen as more “correct”
associated with a prescriptive approach
how ppl “should” talk
other use of language (non standard, dialect) is often seen as chaotic, not rule-governed.

Approaches to language for linguists:

→ Linguists are descriptive

describe how ppl actually talk, not how they “should” talk
there’s no “good” or “bad” language, “ugly” or “lazy” varieties…
a necessary attitude for scientific study
other disciplines don’t talk about “good” or “bad” planets, minerals, birds…

Linguists describe but do not prescribe language

As scientists, linguists:

study how language really is used, describe the patterns observed and try to explain them
don’t say that ppl shouldn’t use “ain’t” or split infinitives…
simply observe that some ppl in certain situations do use “ain’t” (without making value judgments) and note any systematic correlations of such use with particular groups, regions, situations, styles…

Social evaluation

diff language varieties or features are evaluated as “good” or “bad” by members of the society and that’s something that linguists study

That can lead to linguistic insecurity

Définition

Linguistic insecurity

the anxiety or self-consciousness speakers feel about their language use, typically stemming from a perceived mismatch between their own speech and what they consider the “standard” or prestigious norm.

Damp Spoon Syndrom

change is blamed on speakers’ laziness or sloppiness (ex: dropping endings or “careless” pronunciations), a view she rejects as a misunderstanding of natural fast/casual speech and efficiency in articulation.

Crumbling castle view

language is imagined as a once-perfect edifice now deteriorating, which presupposes a mythical golden age (Aitchison argues no such peak existed and that fliexibility is beneficial)

Infectious disease assumption

changes are treated like germs we “catch”, to be resisted (Aitchison counters that ppl adopt innovations to fit in and that changes spread when the system is predisposed to them)

Chapter 3 - Human language, a code / communication system like any other?

4 specific qualities often associated with language:

discreteness = a set of individual units (sounds/words) that can be combined to communicate ideas.
grammar = provides a system of rules, that tells how to combine those individual units.
productivity = the ability to use language to create an infinite nb of messages.
displacement = the ability to talk about things that aren’t right in front of you (past / future / fictional events).

Other properties of languages:

Cultural transmission= languages are learned socially (they’re not genetic). Languages are passed down through generations.
Reflexiveness = we can use language to talk about language
Learnability = we learn new languages

Définition

Compositional meaning

meaning built from the meanings of the part (ex: a black cat, interesting books)

le sens d’une expression est déterminé par le sens de ses parties et par la manière dont elles sont combinées (si tu comprends le sens de chaque mot et la structure grammaticale, tu peux comprendre le tout.)

Non-compositional meaning

meaning not built (or predictable) from the meaning of the parts (ex: an early bird catches a worm.)

le sens global n’est pas déductible du sens littéral des mots (souvent des expressions figées, des idiomes ou des métaphores lexicalisées.)

Figement

phraseological fixedness = set phrases

Ambiguity

Définition

Structural/syntactic ambiguity

one sentence has multiple meanings.

2 types of ambiguity:

polysemy: one lexical unit has more than one meaning
homonymy: two (or more) lexical units that are identical in form, but have different meanings: ground and ground, bank and bank (homonyms proper/full lexical homonyms); flower and flour (homophones); bow and bow (homographs)

Chapter 4 -The functions of language

Jakobson’s functions of language

His theory:

6 human language’s fonctions
necessaries factors of every act of verbal communications :

The ADDRESSER sends MESSAGE to the ADDRESSEE
the MESSAGE requires :
a CONTEXT which is understandable to the ADDRESSEE
a CODE common to the ADDRESSER and the ADDRESSEE
a CONTACT, a physical channel and a psychological connection betw the ADDRESSER and the ADDRESSEE

each of these 6 factors determines a diff functions of language :

Chapter 1 - Introducing linguistics

Définition

A linguist

someone who studies foreign languages or can speak them very well / someone who teaches or studies linguistics

Linguistics

scientific studies of a language

Language

system of communication

How do linguists study language ?

through history (roots)
how language works in society
grammar...

What exactly do linguists study ?

human language as a system
diff aspects of a language

Définition

grammar

A retenir :

Linguistics observe grammar into several levels :

phonetics = study of specific sounds, how they are produced and perceived.
phonology = the study of the patterns of sounds in a language and across languages / the establishment and description of the distinctive sound units of a language by means of distinctive features (high, low, back, round)
morphology = the study of morphemes (the smallest units bearing meaning) and their diff forms (allomorphs), and the way they combine in word formation.
syntax = the way in which words combine to form sentences and the rules which govern the formation of sentences, making some sentences possible and others not possible within a particular language.
semantics = deals with the meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.
pragmatics = the study of the use of language in communication, in particular the relationships betw sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used.

Définition

Dialect

a particular form of a language which is peculiar to a specific region or social group (pronunciation, syntax... can be different)

for social, psychological, historical and political reasons ("a language is a dialect with an army and a navy")

Is the capacity for language innate?

Définition

innateness hypothesis

humans are pre-wired to acquire language (human brain is made to acquire a language but has to be expose to a language)

poverty of the stimulus

child-directed speech is simplified yet children learn to form questions with syntactically embedded material

specialisation for language

certain regions of the brain carry out primarily linguistic functions.

Role of human interaction:

despite innateness arguments, the role of input and human interation cannot be denied.
interaction is key to human dvlmpt - both early and beyond.

Définition

Critical period hypothesis

the claim that there is an optimal period for language acquisition, ending at puberty.

during this critical period, language learning proceeds quickly and easily.

after this period, the acquisition of grammar is difficult and for some ppl, never fully achieved.

Chapter 2 - Prescriptivism vs Descriptivism & Linguistic insecurity

Définition

Prescriptive grammar

Rules of grammar brought about by grammarians’ attempts to legislate what speakers’ grammatical rules should be, rather than what they are.

Prescriptive linguists prescript how we have to use a language

Descriptive grammar

Descriptive linguists= describe the use of language

English prescriptive rules rules of "good" grammar, rules that speakers should follow in order to produce "good" sentences

Approaches to language for non-linguists (”regular ppl”):

“language” often means the standard language
language of school, formal writting
often seen as more “correct”
associated with a prescriptive approach
how ppl “should” talk
other use of language (non standard, dialect) is often seen as chaotic, not rule-governed.

Approaches to language for linguists:

→ Linguists are descriptive

describe how ppl actually talk, not how they “should” talk
there’s no “good” or “bad” language, “ugly” or “lazy” varieties…
a necessary attitude for scientific study
other disciplines don’t talk about “good” or “bad” planets, minerals, birds…

Linguists describe but do not prescribe language

As scientists, linguists:

study how language really is used, describe the patterns observed and try to explain them
don’t say that ppl shouldn’t use “ain’t” or split infinitives…
simply observe that some ppl in certain situations do use “ain’t” (without making value judgments) and note any systematic correlations of such use with particular groups, regions, situations, styles…

Social evaluation

diff language varieties or features are evaluated as “good” or “bad” by members of the society and that’s something that linguists study

That can lead to linguistic insecurity

Définition

Linguistic insecurity

Damp Spoon Syndrom

Crumbling castle view

language is imagined as a once-perfect edifice now deteriorating, which presupposes a mythical golden age (Aitchison argues no such peak existed and that fliexibility is beneficial)

Infectious disease assumption

changes are treated like germs we “catch”, to be resisted (Aitchison counters that ppl adopt innovations to fit in and that changes spread when the system is predisposed to them)

Chapter 3 - Human language, a code / communication system like any other?

4 specific qualities often associated with language:

discreteness = a set of individual units (sounds/words) that can be combined to communicate ideas.
grammar = provides a system of rules, that tells how to combine those individual units.
productivity = the ability to use language to create an infinite nb of messages.
displacement = the ability to talk about things that aren’t right in front of you (past / future / fictional events).

Other properties of languages:

Cultural transmission= languages are learned socially (they’re not genetic). Languages are passed down through generations.
Reflexiveness = we can use language to talk about language
Learnability = we learn new languages

Définition

Compositional meaning

meaning built from the meanings of the part (ex: a black cat, interesting books)

Non-compositional meaning

meaning not built (or predictable) from the meaning of the parts (ex: an early bird catches a worm.)

le sens global n’est pas déductible du sens littéral des mots (souvent des expressions figées, des idiomes ou des métaphores lexicalisées.)

Figement

phraseological fixedness = set phrases

Ambiguity

Définition

Structural/syntactic ambiguity

one sentence has multiple meanings.

2 types of ambiguity:

polysemy: one lexical unit has more than one meaning
homonymy: two (or more) lexical units that are identical in form, but have different meanings: ground and ground, bank and bank (homonyms proper/full lexical homonyms); flower and flour (homophones); bow and bow (homographs)

Chapter 4 -The functions of language

Jakobson’s functions of language

His theory:

6 human language’s fonctions
necessaries factors of every act of verbal communications :

The ADDRESSER sends MESSAGE to the ADDRESSEE
the MESSAGE requires :
a CONTEXT which is understandable to the ADDRESSEE
a CODE common to the ADDRESSER and the ADDRESSEE
a CONTACT, a physical channel and a psychological connection betw the ADDRESSER and the ADDRESSEE

each of these 6 factors determines a diff functions of language :