1498: Vasco De Gama (Portugal) reached India

• opening maritime trade routes

• the Dutch did the same, the concept of predestination
• the French did the same too by following this concept
• the British too, and became strong enough to defeat the Scandinavians, the Portuguese, and the French… like they did in  America before. 

1600: Queen Elizabeth I granted a charter to the East India Company (EIC)

• a business enterprise to facilitate trade with India, England, and possibly China
• the real start of colonization in India

→ competition European powers: the Portuguese, Dutch, French, and British established trading posts in India

→ the British defeated other European colonizers (French and Portuguese) to establish dominance

what to retain :

→ the East India Company began as a trade facilitator but gradually transformed into a political and military power in India

→ the British established their influence by monopolizing trade and defeating rivals

→ India was a rich region with spices, textiles (cotton and silk), gold, and diamonds, which were stolen or exploited by the British

1615: Thomas Roe

• a British diplomat, negotiated trade rights with Emperor Jahangir, giving Britain a monopoly of Indian trade
• the negotiation lasted 4 years
• commercial exchanges include European wine and food, Indian textiles, tea, spices... = the English stole these products from the producers and sold them to England

→ the EIC raised an army of Indian mercenaries (sepoys) and began fighting local Indian rulers and rival companies

law and autonomy:

• The English Parliament passed laws allowing the EIC to conquer, raise armies, and govern territories = greater autonomy
• form military alliances with local princedoms and kingdoms
• right to mint money = greater financial powers

→ the EIC exploited India's fragmented political landscape, dominated by small princely states

→ The top executives of the company, English people living in India, became filthy rich.  They went back to England and started careers as politicians. They bought votes and became members of  Parliament. They formed a small lobby inside Parliament that could pass laws in their own interest. 

• End of 17th century: The East India Company was responsible for 15% of all British imports.
• Mid-19th century: A fifth of the world's population was impacted by the company, either directly or indirectly.
• The East India Company was becoming increasingly rich and powerful.
• Colonization efforts: The company sent teachers, established universities and schools, and trained an intellectual elite to help govern India alongside British authorities.
• Military involvement: The company had its own army, and the wars it participated in were very costly.
• Government intervention: To save the company, the British government passed laws like the Charter Acts of 1813 and 1833, which reduced the company's powers and allowed the British government to take full control of India.
• Outcome: These laws marked a step towards full colonization and introduced the post of Minister of India.

what to retain :

→ The EIC transformed from a trading company into the de facto ruler of India

→ Indian rulers were divided, which the British used to their advantage, through diplomacy and military strength

→ the British extracted resources and established economic policies that enriched England at India's expense

British policies:

• doctrine of Lapse: if an Indian ruler died without an heir, his territory was annexed by the British. = stealing the Indian's produced goods and their lands
• most Indians were scared they were going to be Christianised
• caste cohabitation = a problem for the Indian population
• cultural and religious disrespect: British practices ignored Indian traditions, such as the greatest cartridge incident (rifles greased with cow and pig fat, offensive to Hindus and Muslims)

economic grievances:

• local industries were destroyed as British goods flooded Indian markets
• Farmers were forced to grow cash crops (cotton, indigo) instead of food, leading to power and famine 1857 = which lasted a hundred years = one of these waves killed 30 to 40 million Indians
• lost the desire to fight against the British

SO REBELLION

→ the sepoys rebellion: Indian soldiers in the British army rebelled against British rule (discriminated by the British government)

• violent + mass execution
• they managed to quell the rebellion and felt there was a need to strengthen their control over India

What to retain:

→ 1857: the Indian rebellion (also known as the First War of Independence) was triggered by cultural disrespect, oppressive policies, and economic exploitation

→ the doctrine of Lapse and destruction of local industries increased Indian resentment towards British rule

→ the rebellion marked the first large-scale resistance against British colonization but was brutally suppressed

1858: After the 1857 rebellion

• the British Crown took direct control of India, ending the East India Company's rule = and full power over India
• new ministry called the India Office, the Secretary of State for India, and the governor were now called the Viceroy of India. 
• The Government of India Act transferred all administrative power to the British government

1877: symbolic event

• Queen Victoria declared herself Empress of India, symbolizing complete colonial dominance
• new period of the British Raj

economic exploitation:

• The Industrial Revolution impacted India = their good was brought to Britain where they were manufactured in the new factories and sent back to India = sold at very low prices to undercut the local producers
• British policies devastated the Indian economy, reducing India's share of the world GDP from 25% to 1% by 1947
• India became a source of ram material (cotton, tea, opium) and a market for British manufactured goods

= famine: policies favoring cash crops and British exports led to recurring famines, killing millions

what to retain :

→ the British Raj centralized control, replacing Indian rulers with British administrators

→ India's economy was systematically drained to benefit Britain, causing poverty, famine, and industrial decline

→ the British used India as a source of resources and labor, transforming it into a colonial economy

early movements :

• Indian National Association 1876 and Indian National Congress 1885 were formed to demand political representation

( Muslims invaded India + the majority of the Hindu population feared the Muslims wanted to convert Indians to Islam. + The Hindus and Muslims started going in two different directions to achieve the same goal, independence. + Pakistan has two communities: Hindi and Muslim)

Partition of Bengal 1905:

• British attempted to divide India along religious lines, creating Hindu-Muslim divisions
• leader: Bal Gangadhar Tilak - "Swaraj (self-rule) is my birthright, and I shall have it"

WWI 1914-1918

Indians fought for Britain with the promise of reform, which did not materialize

• 1914 = A quarter of the world was under British colonization
• 1.1 million soldiers
• ww1 = add fuel to the fire = catalyst in the colonies for a desire to push for independence
• used India to impoverish the other colonies in both wars as Bargaining chips

1917: the secretary of state for India said in a speech he used “Responsible  Government (local small parlement were going to be given more power)”, and home rule,  = which covered almost the same areas of government on the ways India was governed 

• collaborating always with an intention

GANDHI

1. Gandhi's Early Life and Background:

• 1915: Gandhi emerges on the political scene in India after returning from South Africa.
• Background: Born into a high caste in India, educated in Britain, and trained as a lawyer.
• Racism: Gandhi faces racism in Britain, making it difficult for him to find work. He moves to South Africa where there is a large Indian community.
• Indentured Servants: The British exploited Indian workers in South Africa under a system where they were treated like slaves.

2. Political Activism in South Africa:

• Gandhi becomes a political activist in South Africa, fighting for the rights of Indian workers who are treated as slaves by British companies.
• He creates collective farms where people work together, promoting a cooperative work environment.
• First Political Agitation: His activism in South Africa marks the beginning of his fight for justice.

3. Return to India (1915) and Development of Non-Violence Philosophy:

• Satya-Graha: Gandhi developed the concept of "Satya-Graha" (Sanskrit for "truth force"), which emphasizes truth and non-violence as tools for political power.
• Principles: Gandhi advocates for non-violence (Ahimsa), civil disobedience, and peaceful protests such as strikes and boycotts.
• Influences: Gandhi is influenced by:
• Tolstoy: Focuses on the plight of workers and the idea that poor farmers should unite.
• Emerson/Thoreau: Transcendentalist ideas about rejecting oppressive institutions and not paying taxes to such governments.
• John Ruskin: Believes supporting the poor is beneficial for the economy, not a loss.

4. Resistance and Early Repression:

• Rowlatt Act (1919): The British government passed this repressive law allowing imprisonment without trial and censorship of the press, specifically aimed at Gandhi and the Indian independence movement.
• Gandhi is imprisoned for advocating freedom of speech.
• Amritsar Massacre (April 13, 1919): British troops kill between 380 to 1,000 protesters in Amritsar, leading to widespread anger and demands for independence.

5. The Movement for Independence:

• Gandhi continues to lead peaceful protests, boycotts, and strikes against British rule.
• Simon Commission (1928): A British commission set up with no Indian representatives, which is met with protests and boycotts.
• Protests in Lahore lead to violence, and an Indian leader, Rai, is beaten by police and dies shortly after.
• India becomes divided into two main movements:
• Semi-independence: Support for limited autonomy.
• Complete independence: Led by Gandhi and the Indian National Congress (INC), calling for full independence from British rule.

6. The Dandi March (1930) and Economic Resistance:

• salt march = protest against the British salt tax, part of the Civil Disobedience Movement
• Gandhi leads the Dandi March, a 400-kilometer walk to the sea to produce salt, challenging the British monopoly on salt production.
• Over 100,000 people are imprisoned for their involvement in the salt protest.
• Gandhi is eventually allowed to attend negotiations with the British government but rejects their offer of Dominion status, demanding full independence instead.

7. The Failure of the Simon Commission and Rising Tensions:

• The Simon Commission fails as the British government refuses to grant complete independence to India.
• The British propose a Federation of India, offering autonomy to provinces, but both Hindus and Muslims reject it.
• The rift between Hindus and Muslims grows, with Muslims feeling increasingly marginalized and demanding a separate nation.

8. The Path to Partition and Creation of Pakistan:

• The idea of Pakistan began to emerge, with Muslims, led by Jinnah, pushing for a separate state.
• Winston Churchill exploited this rift by encouraging Muslims to push for their own country, believing it would prevent a unified, powerful India.
• In 1940, Jinnah declared that if independence was granted, India would be divided or destroyed.
• The growing divide between Hindus and Muslims eventually led to the creation of Pakistan in 1947.

9. Chandra Bose and His Violent Approach:

• Chandra Bose, a Hindu nationalist, sought a quick end to British rule through violence.
• He sought the support of Nazi Germany, meeting with Nazi officials like Rommel, to free Indian war prisoners in exchange for raising an army to fight the British.
• He formed the Indian National Army (INA), composed of Indian mercenaries, and fought alongside the Japanese in Singapore and Burma.
• The INA was defeated in Burma, and its soldiers were imprisoned, charged with treason, and executed. These executions sparked global outrage, fueling the independence movement in India.

what to retain :

→ Indian nationalism grew in response to British exploitation and political exclusion

→ Gandhi's strategy of non-violence became a symbol of resistance

→ religious tensions emerged, leading to the demand for partition

India gained independence under the leadership of Gandhi, Nerhu and Jinnah

1. Increasing Pressure on Britain:

• WWII = Britain was weakened economically and politically accelerating decolonization
• The British were losing colonies to Japan (Burma, Singapore, Malaya) and facing mounting costs, spending 1 million pounds a day on war efforts.
• The British government set up another commission, headed by Cripps, to address Indian independence, but when it failed, protests and civil disobedience erupted across India, with both Hindus and Muslims attacking the British.

3. American Influence and the Changing Global Landscape:

• Franklin D. Roosevelt, the U.S. leader, encouraged Britain to adapt to the new post-war period, pushing for India’s independence.
• Welfare-state ideas were gaining traction in Britain, with the Labour Party seen as better equipped to care for the poor and sick after the war.

4. The Final Push for Independence:

• In 1946, Clement Attlee became Prime Minister and sent a mission to India to solve the independence issue.
• Mountbatten and Radcliffe were dispatched to divide India, but they lacked knowledge of Indian society and misjudged the country’s boundaries, leading to poor decision-making.

5. Partition of India and the Creation of Pakistan:

• The mission aimed to create a new country for Muslims in the northwest and northeast, but the division was poorly planned.
• Kashmir became a disputed area, with many people wanting to remain in India. The partition caused mass migration, leading to the deaths of millions and widespread displacement.
• Pakistan was created in 1947 and named using the first letters of five regions. It means "Land of the Pure" in Urdu.
• the partition caused mass displacement and violence, millions of Hindus, Muslim, and Sikhs were killed or forced to migrate

6. The Aftermath and Long-term Consequences:

• The partition and mass migration caused a devastating civil war, leading to the creation of Bangladesh later on.
• The ongoing violence and territorial disputes between India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh persist today.

7. India's Independence and Republic Status:

• India gained independence in 1947 and became a Republic in 1950 when it adopted its Constitution.
• The British monarch’s role was redefined, becoming a symbolic head of the Commonwealth instead of the head of state for India.

8. British-Irish Relations:

• Queen Elizabeth II made her first diplomatic speech in 2011, marking reconciliation with Ireland, noting that 90% of Irish exports go to England. This speech symbolized a positive shift in relations between the two nations.

what to retain?

→ Indian independence marked the end of British colonialism, but partition led to significant violence and long-term religious tensions

1. Early Colonization: The East India Company began British dominance through trade and military power.
2. East India Company Rule: Economic policies and local disunity allowed Britain to establish control.
3. 1857 Rebellion: The rebellion was India’s first attempt to resist colonization, though unsuccessful.
4. British Raj: Direct British rule brought economic exploitation, famines, and loss of Indian industries.
5. Indian Nationalism: Key leaders (Gandhi, Nehru, Jinnah) and movements (civil disobedience) pushed for self-rule.
6. Independence and Partition: India’s independence was achieved, but partition caused lasting religious and political divisions.