Characteristics:

• Evidence-based and uses the scientific method.
• Systematic inquiry answering “what” and “why.”
• Logical and empirical support.

Errors in Inquiry:

• Selective observation, overgeneralization, and illogical reasoning.
• Science mitigates these errors with rigorous methods.

What Science is Not:

• Pseudoscience: Mimics science without adhering to empirical rigour.
• Unscientific Inquiry: Philosophical or speculative ideas without evidence-based methodology.

• Positivism:
• Views the social world as objective and governed by laws.
• Focuses on measurable, observable phenomena.
• Interpretivism:
• Considers the social world as constructed through human interpretation.
• Emphasizes understanding meanings and cultural contexts.
• Critical Realism:
• Combines positivism and interpretivism: reality exists but is shaped by social and historical influences.

Types: Descriptive, explanatory, predictive, prescriptive, and normative.

Conceptualization: Defining what you will study (e.g., democracy).

Operationalization: Translating abstract concepts into measurable indicators.

Sampling: Selecting units of analysis (individuals, groups, or nations).

Time Dimension:

• Cross-Sectional: Data from one point in time.
• Longitudinal: Data collected over time.