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Post-Bac
1

Chapitre 1 ; The Monarchy

Droit international

Introduction

-What is a constitutional monarchy?

A constitutional monarchy is a system of government where:

  • The head of state is a monarch.
  • The monarch’s powers are limited and defined by a constitution.
  • Political power is shared with an elected government.

The monarch reigns but does not rule.


-Who is the head of state in the UK? In a republic?

  • In the UK: the hereditary monarch (currently King Charles III).
  • In a republic: an elected president.


-What are the three branches of government?

  • Executive power: The Government, led by the Prime Minister and ministers.
  • Legislative power: Parliament, composed of the House of Commons and the House of Lords.
  • Judicial power: The courts, with the Supreme Court as the highest court.
  • The three powers are separated to prevent excessive concentration of power.


Une monarchie constitutionnelle : un monarque dont les pouvoirs sont limités par une Constitution.

Chef de l’État : un roi au Royaume-Uni, un président dans une république.

Trois pouvoirs :

  • exécutif = le gouvernement
  • législatif = le Parlement
  • judiciaire = la Cour suprême.


1 The Role of the Sovereign Now

A/ The Sovereign and the Executive Branch


  • Royal Prerogative:
  • Special rights granted to the king or queen, constitutionally recognized.
  • Allows the monarch to make certain decisions without Parliament’s approval.
  • Examples: head of the British armed forces, appointing the Prime Minister and other ministers (the Cabinet).
  • The monarch remains a neutral political figure and does not express political opinions.
  • Becoming Prime Minister in the UK:
  • The leader of the majority party in the House of Commons after general elections.
  • Formally appointed by the king, but this is always the leader of the party that won the majority.


Le souverain au Royaume-Uni possède des prérogatives royales, c’est-à-dire des droits spéciaux qui lui permettent de prendre certaines décisions sans passer par le Parlement. Il est le chef des forces armées et nomme le Premier ministre ainsi que les ministres du Cabinet. Le roi reste neutre politiquement. Le Premier ministre est toujours le chef du parti majoritaire à la Chambre des communes, et il est officiellement nommé par le roi.


B/The Sovereign and the Legislative Branch


  • Royal Assent:
  • The sovereign must approve a bill passed by Parliament for it to become law.
  • Example: The Queen gave Royal Assent to the Brexit bill.
  • Houses of Parliament:
  • Lower chamber: House of Commons
  • Upper chamber: House of Lords
  • Examples of the Sovereign’s Royal Prerogatives in the Legislative Branch:
  • The King’s Speech: Delivered during the State Opening of Parliament, it outlines the government’s planned laws and policies for the coming year.
  • Last speech example: Wednesday 17 July 2024.


Le souverain doit donner son assentiment royal pour qu’un projet de loi adopté par le Parlement devienne loi. La Chambre basse est la House of Commons, et la Chambre haute est la House of Lords. Une autre prérogative du souverain est le Discours du Roi lors de l’ouverture officielle du Parlement, qui présente les projets de loi et les priorités du gouvernement pour l’année à venir.


C/ The Sovereign and the Judicial Branch


  • Role of the Sovereign in the Judiciary:
  • The sovereign is formally the head of the judiciary in the UK.
  • Senior judges are appointed by the sovereign.
  • Courts operate in the name of the sovereign.
  • The concept of the “fount of justice” means that justice is rendered in the name of the sovereign, e.g., R. v [Name] (“Regina against [Name]”).
  • Criminal cases are usually initiated by the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) on behalf of the Crown.


Le souverain joue un rôle symbolique dans la justice au Royaume-Uni : il est considéré comme le chef de la justice, nomme les juges principaux et toutes les affaires judiciaires sont rendues en son nom (principe du “fount of justice”). Les affaires criminelles sont portées devant les tribunaux par le Crown Prosecution Service au nom de la Couronne.


D/ How Much Power Does the Sovereign Really Have?


Executive Branch:

  • The monarch has very little real power; the role is mostly ceremonial.
  • The monarch cannot choose the Prime Minister; the PM is the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons.
  • The monarch must follow the advice of the Prime Minister and the government.
  • Royal prerogatives (e.g., control of the Armed Forces) are exercised by government ministers, not the monarch.

Legislative Branch:

  • The King’s speech is written by the government, not by the sovereign.
  • Royal Assent is largely a formality, the final step for a bill to become law.
  • The decision to prorogue or dissolve Parliament is now determined by statutory law, not the monarch.

Judicial Branch:

  • The monarch’s power is limited.
  • Judges are appointed through a judicial appointments process with government approval; the monarch’s role is automatic and ceremonial.


Le roi ou la reine a très peu de pouvoir réel au Royaume-Uni.

  • Dans l’exécutif : il ne choisit pas le Premier ministre et doit suivre les conseils du gouvernement.
  • Dans le législatif : son rôle est surtout cérémonial (discours du roi, sanction royale).
  • Dans la justice : il nomme les juges de manière automatique après approbation gouvernementale.

Le souverain est donc un symbole national et cérémonial, illustré par l’expression : « le souverain règne mais ne gouverne pas ».


2 The Rise and Fall of the Monarchy’s Power


Historical Development:

  • During the Renaissance, the monarchy in the UK gained more power.
  • Over time, conflicts arose between Parliament and the monarch over political authority.
  • Parliament gradually won more power, limiting the monarchy’s influence.
  • Result: “The sovereign reigns but Parliament rules.”


A/ Abuse of Royal Power


Norman Invasion (1066):

  • Leader: William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy.
  • Action: Invaded England, defeated King Harold with noble support.
  • Result: Took control of most of England and Wales.


Power Structure after 1066:

  • Feudal system: King grants land to nobles, nobles provide protection and military service.


King John’s Abuse of Power (Early 13th Century):

  • Excessive taxation and demands for military service from nobles.
  • Confiscation of land from nobles.
  • Arbitrary detention and abuse of feudal rights.


Barons’ Reaction – Magna Carta (1215):

  • Peace treaty limiting the king’s power:
  • Respect Church freedom.
  • Cannot excessively tax nobles.
  • Cannot detain freemen arbitrarily.
  • Must provide trial by jury.
  • Council of 25 barons to ensure compliance.


Significance of the Magna Carta:

  • Limited arbitrary royal power.
  • Beginning of rule of law: equality before law, independent judiciary, legal remedies, transparency.
  • Required consultative body for the king.
  • Guaranteed rights like freedom from arbitrary detention and jury trials.
  • Symbolic influence: inspired US Constitution (1789), US Bill of Rights (1791), Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948).


La conquête normande a instauré un système féodal en Angleterre.

Le roi Jean a abusé de son pouvoir au début du XIIIe siècle, provoquant la révolte des barons.

La Magna Carta (1215) a limité le pouvoir royal, introduit l’état de droit et les droits fondamentaux comme le procès par jury et la protection contre la détention arbitraire.

Elle est devenue un symbole historique et une inspiration pour des constitutions modernes.


B/ The Consolidation of Royal Power


Historical Context:

  • 13th–14th century: instability and frequent wars; monarchy dependent on nobles for war funding.
  • Wars of the Roses (1455–1487): period of royal power consolidation.


Henry VII (1485–1509):

  • Reduced dependence on nobles: ended the feudal system, banned private noble armies.
  • Developed a royal army and reduced royal spending.
  • Created a special court to try traitors.
  • Established the Privy Council to help govern.


Henry VIII:

  • Act of Supremacy (1534): became head of the Church of England to allow divorce and remarriage.
  • Act of Union (1536): further consolidated royal power.
  • Protestantism introduced, causing religious divisions.


Consequences and Legacy:

  • Tudor monarchs strengthened royal power.
  • Increased religious division: Protestants vs. Catholics, Anglicans vs. Presbyterians.
  • Successors:
  • Edward VI (1547–1553): continued Protestant reforms.
  • Mary I (1553–1558): restored Catholicism, persecuted Protestants (“Bloody Mary”).
  • Elizabeth I (1558–1603): restored Anglicanism, period of relative religious instability.


Sous les Tudors, le pouvoir royal s’est renforcé : Henry VII a réduit la dépendance aux nobles et créé un gouvernement centralisé, tandis qu’Henry VIII s’est placé à la tête de l’Église pour consolider son autorité. Cela a entraîné des divisions religieuses importantes entre catholiques et protestants. Les successeurs ont poursuivi ces réformes, laissant un héritage de monarchie plus puissante mais religieusement instable.


C/ Clashes with Parliament


  • Stuart Dynasty: Succeeded the Tudors in 1603 with James I (James VI of Scotland).


  • James I: Believed in the divine right of kings and an absolutist monarchy.


  • Charles I (1629–1640): Tried to rule without Parliament, arrested nine MPs, and prorogued Parliament for 11 years (“Personal Rule” or “11 Years’ Tyranny”).


  • Tensions: Parliament feared Charles I’s abuse of power; Charles I feared a parliamentary plot.


  • Trigger of Civil War: Charles I attempted to arrest five MPs in Parliament; he entered with soldiers, violating parliamentary privilege.


  • English Civil War (1642–1651): Royalists (supporting the king) vs. Parliamentarians (supporting Parliament).


  • Outcome: Charles I was captured, tried for treason, and executed in 1649.


Après les Tudors, la dynastie Stuart prend le pouvoir avec James I, qui prône la monarchie absolue. Charles I tente de gouverner sans Parlement, provoquant la guerre civile anglaise. Il est finalement capturé et exécuté pour trahison, marquant la victoire du Parlement.


D/The Victory of Parliament


The Commonwealth (1649-1660)

  • England was ruled as a republic.
  • The House of Lords was abolished.
  • The monarch was replaced by a Council of State, headed by Oliver Cromwell.


Tensions between James II and Parliament

  • James II (1685-1688) attempted to suspend laws restricting religious freedom, causing opposition from Parliament.
  • He dissolved Parliament in 1685 when it opposed him.
  • Parliament replaced James II in 1689 with William and Mary of Orange during the Glorious Revolution, a bloodless revolution.


Declaration of Rights and English Bill of Rights (1689)

  • William and Mary had to agree to respect the Declaration of Rights before taking the throne.
  • The Declaration became the English Bill of Rights, establishing constitutional rules.


Rights protected for Parliament by the Bill of Rights

  • The Crown cannot violate the rights of Parliament.
  • MPs cannot be prosecuted for statements made in Parliament.
  • No excessive bail or cruel/unusual punishment.
  • Parliament must be convened regularly and by free election.


Significance of the Bill of Rights

  • Fundamental constitutional text.
  • Established parliamentary sovereignty.
  • Inspired the American Declaration of Independence and other constitutions.
  • The head of state is subject to the law.
  • Guarantees inalienable rights; citizens can resist or replace a ruler who violates them.


Le Commonwealth (1649-1660) a transformé l’Angleterre en république dirigée par Cromwell. La Glorieuse Révolution de 1688 a remplacé James II par William et Mary, sans effusion de sang, sous la condition de respecter la Déclaration des droits. L’English Bill of Rights (1689) a garanti la souveraineté du Parlement, protégé les droits des députés et posé les bases de la limitation du pouvoir royal.


3.The gradual development of Britain’s constitutional monarchy and the British constitution

A/ Power shifts further away from the Monarch


Act of Settlement (1701)

  • Prevented future disputes over succession to the throne.
  • After William and Mary died without heirs, Anne succeeded but had no children.
  • Prevented any heir who was or married a Catholic from taking the throne.
  • The Succession to the Crown Act 2013 later allowed heirs to marry Catholics.


George I (1714-1727)

  • First British monarch of the House of Hanover.
  • Spoke little English and was not interested in governing.
  • Left government to a group of ministers headed by the most powerful minister, the Prime Minister.


First Prime Minister

  • Robert Walpole.


George III (1760-1820)

  • Wanted to be more active in government.
  • Had to appoint a Prime Minister he did not personally want because the PM needed majority support in Parliament.
  • This practice became an unwritten constitutional convention.


Constitutional conventions

  • Unwritten rules of government, part of the British constitution.
  • Govern morality and proper conduct of rulers.
  • Examples:
  • Appointment of the Prime Minister.
  • Royal Assent.
  • Prorogation of Parliament.
  • Ensure that the monarchy no longer personally exercises powers but follows tradition or advice.


Royal prerogative today

  • No longer exercised personally by the monarch.
  • Either determined by constitutional convention (e.g., Royal Assent) or exercised on the advice of the government.
  • Government must have a majority in Parliament because Parliament is sovereign.
  • Includes powers like prorogation of Parliament.


Au XVIIIe siècle, le pouvoir monarchique s’éloigne du souverain. L’Act of Settlement (1701) sécurise la succession et exclut les catholiques. George I délègue le gouvernement aux ministres, introduisant le rôle de Premier ministre avec Robert Walpole. Les conventions constitutionnelles et la prérogative royale sont désormais exercées par le gouvernement, et non par le monarque, renforçant la souveraineté du Parlement.


B/ The British Constitution


Definition of a constitution

  • A constitution lays down the fundamental principles by which a state is governed.
  • Attributes powers to different branches of government.
  • Establishes limits to those powers, including human rights and international obligations.


Difference with American and French constitutions

  • American constitution: 7 articles, 27 amendments, ratified 1788 after independence.
  • French constitution: 108 articles, amended 25 times, ratified 1958 after instability of Fourth Republic.
  • British constitution: not codified, developed incrementally, major changes during crises (e.g., 17th century English Bill of Rights), not in a single document approved by the people.


Four sources of the British Constitution

  1. Acts of Parliament (constitutional statutes): supreme law, e.g., Act of Settlement 1701, Act of Union 1707, Parliament Act 1911.
  2. Common law: court decisions define limits of government power. Example: 2019 case on Boris Johnson’s prorogation of Parliament.
  3. EU retained law and international law: EU principles incorporated into domestic law via EU Withdrawal Act 2018, plus international treaties ratified by the UK.
  4. Constitutional conventions and works of authority: unwritten rules clarified by experts, e.g., A.V. Dicey, Cabinet Manual.


Why constitutional statutes are at the top

  • Lay down fundamental principles and rules of law.
  • Ensure Parliamentary sovereignty: no court or person can veto or strike down a law passed by Parliament.


EU retained law and assimilated law

  • EU retained law ensures continuity after Brexit (EU Withdrawal Act 2018).
  • “Assimilated law” = court decisions or principles integrated into domestic law.


Works of authority

  • Clarify conventions, explain why they exist and how they operate.
  • Written by constitutional experts (e.g., A.V. Dicey).
  • Cabinet Manual (2012) attempted to make conventions accessible.


La constitution britannique est non codifiée et s’est développée progressivement. Ses sources principales sont les lois du Parlement, la common law, le droit européen et international, et les conventions constitutionnelles expliquées par des experts. Les lois du Parlement sont supérieures et reflètent la souveraineté parlementaire, tandis que les conventions et la common law limitent le pouvoir du gouvernement et clarifient le fonctionnement de l’État.


C/ The British Constitution in Crisis


Boris Johnson and the 2019 prorogation

  • In 2019, the UK faced a political crisis over Parliament’s refusal to approve the Brexit deal.
  • Theresa May resigned after failing to get her deal through Parliament.
  • Boris Johnson replaced her and adopted a radical strategy: he asked the Queen to prorogue (suspend) Parliament for five weeks to limit opposition debate.
  • This action followed convention but provoked a major political crisis.


Supreme Court ruling

  • The prorogation was challenged in court.
  • The Supreme Court of the UK declared it unlawful.
  • Parliament was recalled immediately.


Brexit and the strain on the British Constitution

  • The UK constitution is based on gradual, incremental change.
  • Brexit introduced a major change via a single referendum (52% of voters in favor, 30% of the electorate did not vote, 62% voted against in some areas).
  • Brexit caused an unprecedented political situation for which there were no clear constitutional rules (e.g., Johnson’s prorogation).
  • Some suggest codifying the British constitution into a single document through a constitutional convention.
  • This idea is debated and not universally supported.


En 2019, Boris Johnson a tenté de résoudre l’impasse parlementaire sur le Brexit en suspendant le Parlement, ce qui a provoqué une crise constitutionnelle. La Cour suprême a jugé cette prorogation illégale. Brexit a mis en évidence les limites de la constitution britannique non codifiée et certains proposent de créer un document unique codifiant la constitution, mais cette idée reste controversée.


Some Concluding Remarks


Why the monarchy is still popular in the UK

  • The monarch remains the head of state.
  • The monarchy is largely apolitical, never voting or expressing political opinions.
  • Acts as a symbol of national unity, with ceremonial events and pageantry.
  • The monarchy has faced crises (e.g., Nazi links, Diana’s death), but no viable alternative has gained political support.


Parliamentary sovereignty

  • No law passed by Parliament can be overturned by the courts.
  • Parliament can make or repeal any law, such as the Great Repeal Act removing the UK’s obligations to the EU.
  • It is the cornerstone of the British constitution


Main characteristics of the British Constitution

  • Uncodified: not in a single written document.
  • Flexible: can evolve over time.
  • Subordinate to Parliament: Parliament is supreme.
  • Despite Brexit debates, there are no immediate plans to codify it.


Conclusion: balance of power

  • The monarchy has little real political power after losing historical conflicts with Parliament.
  • Power is organized around Parliamentary supremacy.
  • The UK is a constitutional monarchy, with power constitutionally organized between the monarchy and Parliament.


La monarchie britannique reste populaire comme symbole apolitique et unité nationale, malgré quelques crises. La souveraineté parlementaire fait que le Parlement peut créer ou abroger toutes les lois et reste la source suprême de pouvoir. La constitution britannique est non codifiée, flexible et subordonnée au Parlement, et le pays fonctionne comme une monarchie constitutionnelle où le pouvoir est organisé autour de la suprématie parlementaire.

Post-Bac
1

Chapitre 1 ; The Monarchy

Droit international

Introduction

-What is a constitutional monarchy?

A constitutional monarchy is a system of government where:

  • The head of state is a monarch.
  • The monarch’s powers are limited and defined by a constitution.
  • Political power is shared with an elected government.

The monarch reigns but does not rule.


-Who is the head of state in the UK? In a republic?

  • In the UK: the hereditary monarch (currently King Charles III).
  • In a republic: an elected president.


-What are the three branches of government?

  • Executive power: The Government, led by the Prime Minister and ministers.
  • Legislative power: Parliament, composed of the House of Commons and the House of Lords.
  • Judicial power: The courts, with the Supreme Court as the highest court.
  • The three powers are separated to prevent excessive concentration of power.


Une monarchie constitutionnelle : un monarque dont les pouvoirs sont limités par une Constitution.

Chef de l’État : un roi au Royaume-Uni, un président dans une république.

Trois pouvoirs :

  • exécutif = le gouvernement
  • législatif = le Parlement
  • judiciaire = la Cour suprême.


1 The Role of the Sovereign Now

A/ The Sovereign and the Executive Branch


  • Royal Prerogative:
  • Special rights granted to the king or queen, constitutionally recognized.
  • Allows the monarch to make certain decisions without Parliament’s approval.
  • Examples: head of the British armed forces, appointing the Prime Minister and other ministers (the Cabinet).
  • The monarch remains a neutral political figure and does not express political opinions.
  • Becoming Prime Minister in the UK:
  • The leader of the majority party in the House of Commons after general elections.
  • Formally appointed by the king, but this is always the leader of the party that won the majority.


Le souverain au Royaume-Uni possède des prérogatives royales, c’est-à-dire des droits spéciaux qui lui permettent de prendre certaines décisions sans passer par le Parlement. Il est le chef des forces armées et nomme le Premier ministre ainsi que les ministres du Cabinet. Le roi reste neutre politiquement. Le Premier ministre est toujours le chef du parti majoritaire à la Chambre des communes, et il est officiellement nommé par le roi.


B/The Sovereign and the Legislative Branch


  • Royal Assent:
  • The sovereign must approve a bill passed by Parliament for it to become law.
  • Example: The Queen gave Royal Assent to the Brexit bill.
  • Houses of Parliament:
  • Lower chamber: House of Commons
  • Upper chamber: House of Lords
  • Examples of the Sovereign’s Royal Prerogatives in the Legislative Branch:
  • The King’s Speech: Delivered during the State Opening of Parliament, it outlines the government’s planned laws and policies for the coming year.
  • Last speech example: Wednesday 17 July 2024.


Le souverain doit donner son assentiment royal pour qu’un projet de loi adopté par le Parlement devienne loi. La Chambre basse est la House of Commons, et la Chambre haute est la House of Lords. Une autre prérogative du souverain est le Discours du Roi lors de l’ouverture officielle du Parlement, qui présente les projets de loi et les priorités du gouvernement pour l’année à venir.


C/ The Sovereign and the Judicial Branch


  • Role of the Sovereign in the Judiciary:
  • The sovereign is formally the head of the judiciary in the UK.
  • Senior judges are appointed by the sovereign.
  • Courts operate in the name of the sovereign.
  • The concept of the “fount of justice” means that justice is rendered in the name of the sovereign, e.g., R. v [Name] (“Regina against [Name]”).
  • Criminal cases are usually initiated by the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) on behalf of the Crown.


Le souverain joue un rôle symbolique dans la justice au Royaume-Uni : il est considéré comme le chef de la justice, nomme les juges principaux et toutes les affaires judiciaires sont rendues en son nom (principe du “fount of justice”). Les affaires criminelles sont portées devant les tribunaux par le Crown Prosecution Service au nom de la Couronne.


D/ How Much Power Does the Sovereign Really Have?


Executive Branch:

  • The monarch has very little real power; the role is mostly ceremonial.
  • The monarch cannot choose the Prime Minister; the PM is the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons.
  • The monarch must follow the advice of the Prime Minister and the government.
  • Royal prerogatives (e.g., control of the Armed Forces) are exercised by government ministers, not the monarch.

Legislative Branch:

  • The King’s speech is written by the government, not by the sovereign.
  • Royal Assent is largely a formality, the final step for a bill to become law.
  • The decision to prorogue or dissolve Parliament is now determined by statutory law, not the monarch.

Judicial Branch:

  • The monarch’s power is limited.
  • Judges are appointed through a judicial appointments process with government approval; the monarch’s role is automatic and ceremonial.


Le roi ou la reine a très peu de pouvoir réel au Royaume-Uni.

  • Dans l’exécutif : il ne choisit pas le Premier ministre et doit suivre les conseils du gouvernement.
  • Dans le législatif : son rôle est surtout cérémonial (discours du roi, sanction royale).
  • Dans la justice : il nomme les juges de manière automatique après approbation gouvernementale.

Le souverain est donc un symbole national et cérémonial, illustré par l’expression : « le souverain règne mais ne gouverne pas ».


2 The Rise and Fall of the Monarchy’s Power


Historical Development:

  • During the Renaissance, the monarchy in the UK gained more power.
  • Over time, conflicts arose between Parliament and the monarch over political authority.
  • Parliament gradually won more power, limiting the monarchy’s influence.
  • Result: “The sovereign reigns but Parliament rules.”


A/ Abuse of Royal Power


Norman Invasion (1066):

  • Leader: William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy.
  • Action: Invaded England, defeated King Harold with noble support.
  • Result: Took control of most of England and Wales.


Power Structure after 1066:

  • Feudal system: King grants land to nobles, nobles provide protection and military service.


King John’s Abuse of Power (Early 13th Century):

  • Excessive taxation and demands for military service from nobles.
  • Confiscation of land from nobles.
  • Arbitrary detention and abuse of feudal rights.


Barons’ Reaction – Magna Carta (1215):

  • Peace treaty limiting the king’s power:
  • Respect Church freedom.
  • Cannot excessively tax nobles.
  • Cannot detain freemen arbitrarily.
  • Must provide trial by jury.
  • Council of 25 barons to ensure compliance.


Significance of the Magna Carta:

  • Limited arbitrary royal power.
  • Beginning of rule of law: equality before law, independent judiciary, legal remedies, transparency.
  • Required consultative body for the king.
  • Guaranteed rights like freedom from arbitrary detention and jury trials.
  • Symbolic influence: inspired US Constitution (1789), US Bill of Rights (1791), Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948).


La conquête normande a instauré un système féodal en Angleterre.

Le roi Jean a abusé de son pouvoir au début du XIIIe siècle, provoquant la révolte des barons.

La Magna Carta (1215) a limité le pouvoir royal, introduit l’état de droit et les droits fondamentaux comme le procès par jury et la protection contre la détention arbitraire.

Elle est devenue un symbole historique et une inspiration pour des constitutions modernes.


B/ The Consolidation of Royal Power


Historical Context:

  • 13th–14th century: instability and frequent wars; monarchy dependent on nobles for war funding.
  • Wars of the Roses (1455–1487): period of royal power consolidation.


Henry VII (1485–1509):

  • Reduced dependence on nobles: ended the feudal system, banned private noble armies.
  • Developed a royal army and reduced royal spending.
  • Created a special court to try traitors.
  • Established the Privy Council to help govern.


Henry VIII:

  • Act of Supremacy (1534): became head of the Church of England to allow divorce and remarriage.
  • Act of Union (1536): further consolidated royal power.
  • Protestantism introduced, causing religious divisions.


Consequences and Legacy:

  • Tudor monarchs strengthened royal power.
  • Increased religious division: Protestants vs. Catholics, Anglicans vs. Presbyterians.
  • Successors:
  • Edward VI (1547–1553): continued Protestant reforms.
  • Mary I (1553–1558): restored Catholicism, persecuted Protestants (“Bloody Mary”).
  • Elizabeth I (1558–1603): restored Anglicanism, period of relative religious instability.


Sous les Tudors, le pouvoir royal s’est renforcé : Henry VII a réduit la dépendance aux nobles et créé un gouvernement centralisé, tandis qu’Henry VIII s’est placé à la tête de l’Église pour consolider son autorité. Cela a entraîné des divisions religieuses importantes entre catholiques et protestants. Les successeurs ont poursuivi ces réformes, laissant un héritage de monarchie plus puissante mais religieusement instable.


C/ Clashes with Parliament


  • Stuart Dynasty: Succeeded the Tudors in 1603 with James I (James VI of Scotland).


  • James I: Believed in the divine right of kings and an absolutist monarchy.


  • Charles I (1629–1640): Tried to rule without Parliament, arrested nine MPs, and prorogued Parliament for 11 years (“Personal Rule” or “11 Years’ Tyranny”).


  • Tensions: Parliament feared Charles I’s abuse of power; Charles I feared a parliamentary plot.


  • Trigger of Civil War: Charles I attempted to arrest five MPs in Parliament; he entered with soldiers, violating parliamentary privilege.


  • English Civil War (1642–1651): Royalists (supporting the king) vs. Parliamentarians (supporting Parliament).


  • Outcome: Charles I was captured, tried for treason, and executed in 1649.


Après les Tudors, la dynastie Stuart prend le pouvoir avec James I, qui prône la monarchie absolue. Charles I tente de gouverner sans Parlement, provoquant la guerre civile anglaise. Il est finalement capturé et exécuté pour trahison, marquant la victoire du Parlement.


D/The Victory of Parliament


The Commonwealth (1649-1660)

  • England was ruled as a republic.
  • The House of Lords was abolished.
  • The monarch was replaced by a Council of State, headed by Oliver Cromwell.


Tensions between James II and Parliament

  • James II (1685-1688) attempted to suspend laws restricting religious freedom, causing opposition from Parliament.
  • He dissolved Parliament in 1685 when it opposed him.
  • Parliament replaced James II in 1689 with William and Mary of Orange during the Glorious Revolution, a bloodless revolution.


Declaration of Rights and English Bill of Rights (1689)

  • William and Mary had to agree to respect the Declaration of Rights before taking the throne.
  • The Declaration became the English Bill of Rights, establishing constitutional rules.


Rights protected for Parliament by the Bill of Rights

  • The Crown cannot violate the rights of Parliament.
  • MPs cannot be prosecuted for statements made in Parliament.
  • No excessive bail or cruel/unusual punishment.
  • Parliament must be convened regularly and by free election.


Significance of the Bill of Rights

  • Fundamental constitutional text.
  • Established parliamentary sovereignty.
  • Inspired the American Declaration of Independence and other constitutions.
  • The head of state is subject to the law.
  • Guarantees inalienable rights; citizens can resist or replace a ruler who violates them.


Le Commonwealth (1649-1660) a transformé l’Angleterre en république dirigée par Cromwell. La Glorieuse Révolution de 1688 a remplacé James II par William et Mary, sans effusion de sang, sous la condition de respecter la Déclaration des droits. L’English Bill of Rights (1689) a garanti la souveraineté du Parlement, protégé les droits des députés et posé les bases de la limitation du pouvoir royal.


3.The gradual development of Britain’s constitutional monarchy and the British constitution

A/ Power shifts further away from the Monarch


Act of Settlement (1701)

  • Prevented future disputes over succession to the throne.
  • After William and Mary died without heirs, Anne succeeded but had no children.
  • Prevented any heir who was or married a Catholic from taking the throne.
  • The Succession to the Crown Act 2013 later allowed heirs to marry Catholics.


George I (1714-1727)

  • First British monarch of the House of Hanover.
  • Spoke little English and was not interested in governing.
  • Left government to a group of ministers headed by the most powerful minister, the Prime Minister.


First Prime Minister

  • Robert Walpole.


George III (1760-1820)

  • Wanted to be more active in government.
  • Had to appoint a Prime Minister he did not personally want because the PM needed majority support in Parliament.
  • This practice became an unwritten constitutional convention.


Constitutional conventions

  • Unwritten rules of government, part of the British constitution.
  • Govern morality and proper conduct of rulers.
  • Examples:
  • Appointment of the Prime Minister.
  • Royal Assent.
  • Prorogation of Parliament.
  • Ensure that the monarchy no longer personally exercises powers but follows tradition or advice.


Royal prerogative today

  • No longer exercised personally by the monarch.
  • Either determined by constitutional convention (e.g., Royal Assent) or exercised on the advice of the government.
  • Government must have a majority in Parliament because Parliament is sovereign.
  • Includes powers like prorogation of Parliament.


Au XVIIIe siècle, le pouvoir monarchique s’éloigne du souverain. L’Act of Settlement (1701) sécurise la succession et exclut les catholiques. George I délègue le gouvernement aux ministres, introduisant le rôle de Premier ministre avec Robert Walpole. Les conventions constitutionnelles et la prérogative royale sont désormais exercées par le gouvernement, et non par le monarque, renforçant la souveraineté du Parlement.


B/ The British Constitution


Definition of a constitution

  • A constitution lays down the fundamental principles by which a state is governed.
  • Attributes powers to different branches of government.
  • Establishes limits to those powers, including human rights and international obligations.


Difference with American and French constitutions

  • American constitution: 7 articles, 27 amendments, ratified 1788 after independence.
  • French constitution: 108 articles, amended 25 times, ratified 1958 after instability of Fourth Republic.
  • British constitution: not codified, developed incrementally, major changes during crises (e.g., 17th century English Bill of Rights), not in a single document approved by the people.


Four sources of the British Constitution

  1. Acts of Parliament (constitutional statutes): supreme law, e.g., Act of Settlement 1701, Act of Union 1707, Parliament Act 1911.
  2. Common law: court decisions define limits of government power. Example: 2019 case on Boris Johnson’s prorogation of Parliament.
  3. EU retained law and international law: EU principles incorporated into domestic law via EU Withdrawal Act 2018, plus international treaties ratified by the UK.
  4. Constitutional conventions and works of authority: unwritten rules clarified by experts, e.g., A.V. Dicey, Cabinet Manual.


Why constitutional statutes are at the top

  • Lay down fundamental principles and rules of law.
  • Ensure Parliamentary sovereignty: no court or person can veto or strike down a law passed by Parliament.


EU retained law and assimilated law

  • EU retained law ensures continuity after Brexit (EU Withdrawal Act 2018).
  • “Assimilated law” = court decisions or principles integrated into domestic law.


Works of authority

  • Clarify conventions, explain why they exist and how they operate.
  • Written by constitutional experts (e.g., A.V. Dicey).
  • Cabinet Manual (2012) attempted to make conventions accessible.


La constitution britannique est non codifiée et s’est développée progressivement. Ses sources principales sont les lois du Parlement, la common law, le droit européen et international, et les conventions constitutionnelles expliquées par des experts. Les lois du Parlement sont supérieures et reflètent la souveraineté parlementaire, tandis que les conventions et la common law limitent le pouvoir du gouvernement et clarifient le fonctionnement de l’État.


C/ The British Constitution in Crisis


Boris Johnson and the 2019 prorogation

  • In 2019, the UK faced a political crisis over Parliament’s refusal to approve the Brexit deal.
  • Theresa May resigned after failing to get her deal through Parliament.
  • Boris Johnson replaced her and adopted a radical strategy: he asked the Queen to prorogue (suspend) Parliament for five weeks to limit opposition debate.
  • This action followed convention but provoked a major political crisis.


Supreme Court ruling

  • The prorogation was challenged in court.
  • The Supreme Court of the UK declared it unlawful.
  • Parliament was recalled immediately.


Brexit and the strain on the British Constitution

  • The UK constitution is based on gradual, incremental change.
  • Brexit introduced a major change via a single referendum (52% of voters in favor, 30% of the electorate did not vote, 62% voted against in some areas).
  • Brexit caused an unprecedented political situation for which there were no clear constitutional rules (e.g., Johnson’s prorogation).
  • Some suggest codifying the British constitution into a single document through a constitutional convention.
  • This idea is debated and not universally supported.


En 2019, Boris Johnson a tenté de résoudre l’impasse parlementaire sur le Brexit en suspendant le Parlement, ce qui a provoqué une crise constitutionnelle. La Cour suprême a jugé cette prorogation illégale. Brexit a mis en évidence les limites de la constitution britannique non codifiée et certains proposent de créer un document unique codifiant la constitution, mais cette idée reste controversée.


Some Concluding Remarks


Why the monarchy is still popular in the UK

  • The monarch remains the head of state.
  • The monarchy is largely apolitical, never voting or expressing political opinions.
  • Acts as a symbol of national unity, with ceremonial events and pageantry.
  • The monarchy has faced crises (e.g., Nazi links, Diana’s death), but no viable alternative has gained political support.


Parliamentary sovereignty

  • No law passed by Parliament can be overturned by the courts.
  • Parliament can make or repeal any law, such as the Great Repeal Act removing the UK’s obligations to the EU.
  • It is the cornerstone of the British constitution


Main characteristics of the British Constitution

  • Uncodified: not in a single written document.
  • Flexible: can evolve over time.
  • Subordinate to Parliament: Parliament is supreme.
  • Despite Brexit debates, there are no immediate plans to codify it.


Conclusion: balance of power

  • The monarchy has little real political power after losing historical conflicts with Parliament.
  • Power is organized around Parliamentary supremacy.
  • The UK is a constitutional monarchy, with power constitutionally organized between the monarchy and Parliament.


La monarchie britannique reste populaire comme symbole apolitique et unité nationale, malgré quelques crises. La souveraineté parlementaire fait que le Parlement peut créer ou abroger toutes les lois et reste la source suprême de pouvoir. La constitution britannique est non codifiée, flexible et subordonnée au Parlement, et le pays fonctionne comme une monarchie constitutionnelle où le pouvoir est organisé autour de la suprématie parlementaire.

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